TASK LIST

AND KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ABILITIES STATEMENTS

FOR

APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

ii

1. Ethical Considerations 1 - 4
2. Characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis 4 - 6
3. Basic Principles of Behavior 6 - 9

4. Characteristics and Rationale 9 - 10
5. Descriptive Analysis 11
6. Systematic Manipulations 11 -12
(Demonstrating functional relationships)
7. Measurement 12 - 14

8. Data Display 14 - 17

9. Data Interpretation 17

10. Selection of Targets for Change and Intermediate
and Ultimate Outcomes 18 - 19

11. General Issues Regarding
Procedures 19 - 20

12. Behavior Change Procedures 20 - 29
13. Generality of Behavior Change 29 - 30
14. Managing Emergencies 30 - 31

15. Transfer of Technology 31 - 32
16. Establishing support for behavior analysis services. 32 - 33

Appendix I: Table showing number of questions per task & tasks on which associate behavior analysts will be examined

Appendix II: Bibliography

• Practitioners should reference their professional behavior to the ethical considerations described in the Tasks that follow. In addition, practitioners should:

• Help to ensure that the outcomes of services are consistent with indicators (verbal behavior, culture, and ethinicity, and social and economic status) of how the focus person wants to live.
• Protect the person’s dignity.
• Take into consideration the person’s civil responsibility (e.g., obeying the law).
• Be responsive to the cultural/social context within which services are to be provided.
• When constraints on practice are encountered, as when budgetary limitations restrict the implementation of the least intrusive behavior change procedures that are most likely to be effective, advocate for changes that would allow for the use of the behavior change procedures considered to be the most appropriate.
• Weigh the rights of the individual against the needs of the community while aggressively challenging contingencies that directly and unnecessarily restrict the former.
• Evaluate the contingencies operating on their practices to ensure that applied behavior analysis is not being used to the disadvantage of the person whose behavior is the target for change.
• Be familiar with the legal and/or regulatory requirements for the State or agency within which they provide services.

• This Content Area is divided into tasks based on the typical methods used by the practitioner. Portions of The Behavior Analyst’s Code of Ethics (Florida Association for Behavior Analysis) and Living Everyday Lives: A strategic plan for individuals who have developmental disabilities - 1994-1996 (Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, Developmental Services Program) were used in its preparation.

1. Obtain consent within applicable legal and ethical standards.

1. Requirements for consent differ from state to state and from agency to agency within a state; it is generally the case, however, that, at a minimum, consent must be obtained for all punishment procedures and those procedures which involve risk to consumer rights or protection. Concern for consent should extend beyond the use of specific behavior change procedures, however.
2. There are three elements defining consent: capacity, information, and voluntariness.

• Capacity requires that the person (including guardians) giving consent has reached the age of majority (usually 18 years) and is competent to make such decisions.
• Information requires that the person giving consent be informed that he or she has the right to refuse to give consent without penalty, that he or she may withdraw consent at any time without penalty, of the exact nature of the procedure(s) involved, the expected benefits of the procedure(s), the potential risks of the procedure(s), and risks/benefits of alternative approaches.
• Voluntariness requires that there be no coercion or duress in obtaining consent.

1. When there is no-one from whom consent can be obtained, the following guidelines should be followed: (1) the consumer’s behavior must be judged to present imminent danger to self or others and that, within reasonable certainty, harm will result if services are not provided, (2) there must be a reasonable probability that the proposed behavior analysis services will produce beneficial effects for the consumer without concomitant harmful effects, and (3) procedural safeguards should be in place to protect the rights of the consumer and service provider.

TASK 1-2: Identify functional relationships within applicable ethical standards.

1. The least intrusive and least risky behavioral assessment methods should be used to obtain only the information necessary and sufficient to formulate reasonable hypotheses.

TASK 1-3: Select targets for change, and intermediate and ultimate outcomes within applicable ethical standards.

1. Outcomes should be selected by each consumer and/or his or her representatives in consultation with others selected by them.
2. Targets for change that primarily benefit the consumer, are functional for the consumer, lead to increased socially-valued competencies, and are likely to be maintained should be encouraged.
3. Opportunities to strengthen natural family and community life experiences and relationships should be facilitated and supported. Participation in the fabric of the community should be a prime objective.
4. Children should live within a family.
5. Advocacy and social supports should be established through family and friends.
6. Persons should live, work and recreate where and with whom they choose.

TASK 1-4: Decide when to implement behavior change procedures within applicable ethical standards.

1. Behavior change procedures should be implemented only when there is documented evidence and agreement on the part of the central participants that the need for behavior change exists.
2. Behavior change procedures should be implemented only when there is clear evidence that the social (Content Area 16) and physical environment will support their use.

TASK 1-5: Select behavior change procedures within applicable ethical standards.

1. The consumer's rights should be protected. Normal goods and services should not be withheld without consent.
2. The least restrictive procedure that is likely to be effective, efficient and produce the minimum unwanted effects should be selected.

TASK 1-6: Implement behavior change procedures within applicable ethical standards.

1. Implementation of procedures shall be in accordance with agreed upon protocols.
2. Medical and physical concerns should be addressed prior to or concomitant with the implementation of behavior change procedures.
3. When practitioners encounter behavioral issues that they are not adequately prepared to handle, they should refer the consumer to another practitioner who has the required repertoire.
4. Changes in intervention procedures should be made in a timely manner and in keeping with ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of those procedures.

TASK 1-7: Evaluate intervention within applicable ethical standards.

1. Direct measurement of the behavior targeted for change should occur throughout the baseline and intervention process. The decision to establish a baseline or not, should be made after considering the degree of risk to the consumer or others posed by a delay in the implementation of behavior change procedures.
2. Consumers should not be exposed to procedures that are selected or evaluated on the basis of spurious or unreliable data or momentary opinions formed without consideration of historical behavioral patterns or in the absence of confirming data.
3. The efficacy of the intervention should be continually evaluated to ensure that the consumer is receiving the most effective services possible. Consumers of behavior analysis services should not be exposed to procedures found to be ineffective.
4. Consumers should be given a reliable and valid way of evaluating the services they are receiving.

TASK 1-8: Protect confidentiality within applicable ethical standards.

1. The provider of behavior analysis services should take every precaution to ensure that information regarding services being provided is only shared with others with the consent of the person for whom the services are provided. The person’s identity should be obscured when this information is not pertinent to the matter at hand.
2. Only those persons having authorization to view consumer records (including graphs, assessment reports, etc.) should be allowed to have access to them.

TASK 1-9: Use emergency procedures within applicable ethical standards.

1. Emergency procedures should only be used when there is a documented need to do so to protect the client, others or the environment.
2. The protection of the health and safety of the person with whom intervention is taken should be paramount in the decision as to which emergency procedure is used.
3. The use of emergency procedures should occasion the assessment of the factors leading up its use and consideration of measures, if any, that should be taken to reduce or eliminate the need to use the procedure in the future.

 

CONTENT AREA 2

DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

TASK 2-1: State the underlying assumptions of behavior analysis.

1. Determinism: The universe is a lawful and orderly place and all phenomena occur as a result of other events.
2. Empiricism: The phenomena of interest, behavior with regard to behavioral dimensions (see Task 3-1), is objectively observed and thoroughly described and quantified.
3. Scientific Manipulation: Events that are thought to affect the phenomena of interest are carefully manipulated to elucidate their effects.
4. Philosophic Doubt: Conclusions derived from scientific manipulation are tentative. They may be modified, or discarded, when new facts or discoveries come to light.

TASK 2-2: Distinguish between behaviorism, the experimental analysis of behavior, and applied behavior analysis.

1. Behaviorism: the philosophy of behavior analysis, based on a scientific approach to the examination of behavior, extended to verbal behavior and private events, advancing that all behavior is a function of the interactions of ontogenic and phylogenic variables rather than controlled by nominal, hypothetical entities such as "mind," "will," and "self." Behavioral processes (e.g., reinforcement, stimulus control) are functionally defined, including observable operations and their effects.
2. Experimental Analysis of Behavior: a method, for which behaviorism provides the theoretical underpinnings, for studying behavior and the environmental variables of which it is a function. The characteristics of this method include continuous observation of the behavior of individuals, precise description of both behavior and the independent variables in question, automated recording whenever possible, and studying behavior in controlled environments.
3. Applied Behavior Analysis: like the experimental analysis of behavior, the assumptions of behaviorism provide the theoretical underpinnings for applied behavior analysis. Unlike the experimental analysis of behavior, applied behavior analysis involves studying behavior with significance to the participants involved. Moreover, the investigation does not always involve continuous observation, behaviors that can be quickly repeated, or well controlled environments. Automated recording is sometimes possible, but is used much less frequently than in the experimental analysis of behavior.

TASK 2-3: Describe the dimensions of applied behavior analysis (ABA).

1. Applied: ABA focuses on the implementation of basic principles (Content Area 3) to behaviors of significance to the participants involved.
2. Behavioral: ABA focuses on behavior in its own right as a target for change.
3. Analytic: ABA seeks to identify functional relationships between behavior and environmental events through scientific study.
4. Technological: In ABA, procedures are completely and precisely defined.
5. Conceptually Systematic: In ABA, procedures are linked to, and described in terms of, the basic principles of behavior (Content Area 3).
6. Effective: In ABA, the changes in behavior are significant to the participants involved, cost effective, and efficient. Behavior analysts attempt to use procedures that promote generalization and maintenance of behavior change.
7. Generality: Behavior analysts attempt to discover procedures that can be applied effectively to many individuals and in many settings.

TASK 2-4: Interpret articles from the behavior analytic literature.

1. Identify the dependent variable.
2. Identify the independent variable.
3. Identify response measure and recording interval.
4. Identify baseline and interventions.
5. Identify threats to internal validity.
6. Determine if functional relationships have been established/demonstrated.

 

CONTENT AREA 3

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR

TASK 3-1: Define behavior/response/response class.

1. Behavior is the interaction of the muscles and glands of an organism and the environment.
2. A response is an instance of behavior.
3. A topographical response class is a collection of responses that share a common form.
4. A functional response class is a collection of responses that share common functional relationships with classes of antecedent and consequent stimuli.
5. The properties of behavior are repeatability, occurrence in time and the combination of repeatability and occurrence in time. Response measures (Content Area 9) are derived from these properties.

TASK 3-2: Define environment.

1. Environment constitutes the entire constellation of stimuli that can affect behavior.

TASK 3-3: Define stimulus.

1. A stimulus is a change in the environment that can affect behavior.

TASK 3-4: Define consequence.

1. A consequence is a stimulus that follows a behavior in time.

TASK 3-5: Define antecedent.

1. An antecedent is a stimulus that precedes a behavior in time.

TASK 3-6: Define reinforcement.

1. Reinforcement is defined functionally, including the operation and effect on the behavior.
2. In the case of positive reinforcement, a stimulus is presented after a response (operation), and as a result, the future frequency of the response class increases (effect).
3. In negative reinforcement, a stimulus is attenuated or removed after a response (operation), and as a result, the future frequency of the response class increases (effect).
4. Although these definitions refer only to frequency, the effect of reinforcement may also be measured using latency, duration and inter-response time (Content Area 7).

TASK 3-7: Define punishment.

1. Punishment is defined functionally, including the operation and effect on the behavior.
2. In the case of positive punishment, a stimulus is presented after a behavior (operation), and as a result, the frequency of the response class decreases (effect).
3. In negative punishment, a stimulus is attenuated or removed after a behavior (operation), and as a result, the frequency of the response class decreases (effect).
4. Although these definitions refer only to frequency, the effect of punishment may also be measured using latency, duration and inter-response time (Content Area 7).

TASK 3-8: Define stimulus control.

1. Stimulus control is the extent to which a behavior changes as a result of the presentation and removal of an antecedent stimulus, which has been established through operant conditioning (see Task 3 -15.) Terms for various discriminative stimuli outlined below are inclusive of all stimulus control processes, but are not the only terms in the current literature used to describe the same.

• S^D: stimulus that when present, evokes behavior because in the past, the behavior has been reinforced (positively or negatively) in its presence.
• S^DELTA: a stimulus that when present, weakens behavior because in the past, that behavior has been extinguished (or contacted a leaner schedule of reinforcement) in its presence.
• S^P: a stimulus that when present, weakens behavior because in the past, that behavior has been punished (positively or negatively) in its presence.

TASK 3-9: Define establishing operation.

1. An establishing operation (EO) is a procedure that momentarily alters the effectiveness of the reinforcer and the momentary frequency of the response class that has in the past produced the stimulus.

TASK 3-10: Define contingency.

1. A contingency is a dependent relationship between a response class and one or more stimulus classes (operant), or between two or more stimuli (respondent).

 

 

TASK 3-11: Define functional relationships.

1. A functional relationship exists when changes in an antecedent or consequent stimulus class consistently alter a dimension of a response class. Response dimensions might not be altered on each occasion of a change in a stimulus class.

TASK 3-12: Define extinction.

1. A consequence is withheld (operation), and as a result, some extent of occurrence of the response class is less likely to occur (effect).

TASK 3-13: Define generalization.

1. Generalization is the spread of the changes in behavior engendered by a contingency to other stimulus conditions (stimulus generalization), or other responses (response generalization), that have not been exposed to that contingency. The extent of the effect is related to the similarity of the other stimulus or response class characteristics.

TASK 3-14: Describe the respondent conditioning model.

1. A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that has no effect on the behavior of interest.
2. An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a response, and does so without previous conditioning.
3. An unconditioned response is a response that is elicited by a unconditioned stimulus. This effect is not a result of previous conditioning (ontogeny), but is instead a part of the person's biology (phylogeny).
4. A conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, through correlation with an unconditioned stimulus, has come to elicit a conditioned response.
5. A conditioned response is a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus, the effect of which results from prior correlation with some other stimulus.
6. The response and the associated stimulus is termed a reflex.
7. Respondent conditioning can be explained using a 3 step model.

• First an unconditioned reflex is selected wherein a stimulus reliably elicits a response without prior conditioning. The stimulus is called the unconditioned stimulus (US), and the response, the unconditioned response (UR).
• Second, some neutral stimulus (NS) is selected that does not elicit the UR, and that stimulus is correlated with the US. In such an arrangement, when the NS is presented, the US quickly follows, and when the NS is absent, the US is not presented.
• Third, as a result of the second step, the NS becomes the CS and elicits a response similar to the UR, and this response is the conditioned response (CR).

 

TASK 3-15: Describe the operant conditioning model.

1. In operant conditioning, the correlation is not between two stimuli as in respondent conditioning, but between a response and a consequence, or perhaps between an antecedent, a response, and a consequence. Thus, some extent of occurrence of a response class is changed, or changed in the presence of a particular antecedent, because of a change in consequences.

TASK 3-16: Define contingency-shaped and rule governed behavior and distinguish between examples of each.

1. Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior acquired via reinforcement contingencies.
2. Rule governed behavior is acquired via descriptions of contingencies without the person actually contacting the contingencies described.
3. In both cases, consequences maintain the behavior, if it is indeed maintained.

 

BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT

Behavioral assessment has been divided into six content areas: general characteristics and rationale, descriptive analysis, systematic manipulations, measurement, data display and data interpretation. Behavioral assessment might involve the identification of functional relationships and/or the evaluation of behavior change strategies.

 

CONTENT AREA 4

CHARACTERISTICS AND RATIONALE

Content Area 4 relates to both descriptive analysis and systematic manipulations. The practitioner must be able to develop hypotheses regarding the need for behavioral intervention, the locus of intervention and recommended behavior change procedures, and evaluate interventions from the information gained through behavioral assessment.

TASK 4-1: State the primary characteristics of descriptive analysis.

1. Descriptive and quantitative data are essential to the decision to intervene, where to intervene, how to intervene and the identification of functional relationships. Descriptive analysis (Content Area 5) provides an organized, conceptually sound and efficacious method for obtaining those data.
2. Descriptive analysis does not permit the same degree of precise determination of functional relationships between behavior and its stimulus conditions as in procedures involving the systematic manipulation of variables under controlled conditions (Content Area 6).

 

TASK 4-2: State the rationale for conducting a descriptive analysis.

1. To obtain and organize relevant information about behavior and its circumstances.
2. To develop hypotheses regarding the need for or alternatives to behavior analysis services, the locus of intervention and functional relationships based on the information obtained. The locus of intervention might be as narrow as a single operant or as broad as the overriding systems of contingencies operating in a person's or more than one person's environment.
3. To provide useful information for evaluating interventions on an on-going basis. The use of behavior change procedures (Content Area 12) in the absence of information of the type obtained through descriptive analysis has typically resulted in minimally effective (at best) or harmful (at worst) interventions.

TASK 4-3: State the primary characteristics of the process of systematic manipulations (demonstrating functional relationships).

1. The process can be either inductive or deductive.
2. Controlling variables are identified through the systematic manipulation of measurable environmental factors while measuring specific dimensions of behavior within acceptable methodological parameters (Content Area 6).
3. Certainty about controlling variables is greatest when systematic manipulations are employed.

TASK 4-4: State the rationale for using systematic manipulations (demonstrating functional relationships) and for determining the reliability and generality of functional relationships.

1. This approach is indicated when descriptive analysis does not provide sufficient information for formulating reasonable hypotheses or when intervention based on hypotheses generated from descriptive analysis are not producing the desired behavior change and no further adjustments are indicated by the data or other information. Also, this approach should also be considered when there is a huge time and resource investment in training a large number of staff across a number of relevant environments to perform the requisites of the selected behavior change strategies.
2. Systematic manipulations provide the most reliable information for developing hypotheses regarding the need for intervention, functional relationships and recommended behavior change procedures and increases the likelihood that effective interventions will be selected.
3. Systematic manipulations increase the likelihood that the use of ineffective or unnecessary procedures will be avoided.
4. Systematic manipulations lead to the identification of procedures or principles that have generality across persons, settings, and other variables.

 

CONTENT AREA 5

DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS METHODS

TASK 5-1: Use various methods to gather descriptive data.

1. Develop a preliminary statement of the essential question or questions around which hypotheses are to be formulated that enables more specific data to be obtained in an organized and conceptually systematic manner.
2. Use written records.
3. Use structured interviews.
4. Use adaptive behavior and environment assessment tools.
5. Conduct observations (direct visual or indirect audio and/or video recordings) of behavior, things, events and social context.
6. Record observations using narrative recordings, recording forms, and direct measurement (Content Area 7) to document behavior and stimuli.

TASK 5-2: Use various methods to organize and interpret descriptive data.

1. Use a pattern analysis - the examination of data to identify occurrences or non-occurrences or variations in the extent of occurrence of a response class across time frames and other factors.
2. Use sequence analysis - the systematic presentation and/or examination of information in an ABC format where A represents antecedents or stimuli preceding the behaviors, B is the behavior or observable activity of the person, and C symbolizes the consequences or stimuli following the behavior.
3. Use appropriate data displays (Content Area 8).
4. Develop hypotheses regarding functional relationships, the need for intervention, the locus of intervention, and recommended behavior change procedures.

 

CONTENT AREA 6

SYSTEMATIC MANIPULATIONS
(DEMONSTRATING FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS)

Systematic manipulations may be used to demonstrate functional relationships and to evaluate interventions once these are decided upon.

TASK 6-1: Use various methodologies to demonstrate functional relationships and to determine the reliability and generality of functional relationships through direct and systematic replication, respectively.

1. Involves the repeated and systematic presentation and removal of an independent variable and the measurement of a dependent variable while holding other factors constant.
2. The "subject" typically acts as his or her own control.
3. Changes in the independent variable are made once the dependent variable has reached a steady state.
4. May involve a combination of designs.
5. Designs include two or more independent variables, two or more "subjects", one or more dependent variables.
6. Cautions include the possibility of stimulus and/or response generalization and failure to obtain a reversal in withdrawal designs.
7. The crossover between evaluating specific behavior change procedures (i.e., treatments) and assessment should be understood.

TASK 6-2: Use withdrawal (reversal) design.

TASK 6-3: Use alternating treatments (e.g., multi-element, simultaneous treatment, multiple or concurrent schedule, alternating conditions, and randomization) designs.

TASK 6-4: Use changing criterion design.

TASK 6-5: Use multiple baseline design.

TASK 6-6: Identify factors particular to applied settings that must be managed when using systematic manipulations.

1. Safety and health of all participants.
2. Administrative and staff support.
3. Consent of the person or the person's legal representative.
4. Control of the environment.

TASK 6-7: Complete a component analysis (e.g., determining effective component(s) of a treatment package).

TASK 6-8: Complete a parametric analysis (e.g., determining effective parametric values of consequences, such as duration or magnitude).

 

CONTENT AREA 7

MEASUREMENT OF BEHAVIOR

This content area includes methods for obtaining data on clearly identified response classes. The user is reminded that these methods are often used prior to the selection of behavior change procedures, when initially attempting to identify functional relationships. Determining the optimal duration of recording intervals and selecting the recording apparatus based on ease of use and potential for measurement reactivity are considered as KSAs for Tasks 7-2 & 3, which address direct and indirect methods of measurement, respectively.

TASK 7-1: Distinguish direct measures of properties of behavior (see Task 3-1) from indirect measures of properties behavior.

1. Identify the advantages of direct measures.
2. Identify and account for the biases associated with each type of indirect measurement.
3. Identify the factors that influence the choice of one method over the other.

TASK 7-2: Use direct measures of behavior.

A. Use rate (sometimes referred to as frequency) - the number of responses per unit of time.

1. Assess the temporal dimension of the behavior to determine if duration as well as frequency should be recorded.

B. Use duration - the elapsed time between the onset and the cessation of a single response.

1. Assess the countability of the behavior to determine if frequency as well as duration should be recorded.
2. Use when duration of behavior is targeted for change.

C. Use latency - the elapsed time between the onset of a specific stimulus and the onset of a response.

1. Determine the specific stimulus, the onset of which begins the latency interval.
2. Assess the countability and temporal dimension of the behavior to determine if frequency or duration should be recorded.
3. Use when latency is identified as the target for change.

D. Use inter-response time (IRT) - the elapsed time between the cessation of one response and the onset of another.

1. Assess the countability and temporal dimension of the behavior to determine if frequency, duration, or latency should be recorded instead.

TASK 7-3: Use indirect measures of behavior.

A. Use percent of occurrence - the ratio of responses to opportunities to respond multiplied by 100.

1. Use only with discriminated operant behaviors that have a fixed or limited number of opportunities to occur.

B. Use trials to criterion - the number of consecutive opportunities to respond required to achieve a performance standard.

1. Record each opportunity to respond until the performance standard is met.

C. Use partial-interval recording - the number of time intervals (usually 10-20 seconds in duration) in a specific period of time during which a response occurs at least once.

1. Record whether (yes) or not (no) the behavior occurs at least once during each interval.
2. Convert the data to percent of "yes" intervals (the ratio of the number of intervals scored to the total number of intervals multiplied by 100).
3. Use rate with a shorter recording interval as an alternative to this response measure.

D. Use whole-interval recording - the number of time intervals (usually 10-20 seconds in duration) in a specific period of time during which a response occurs continuously for an entire interval.

1. Record whether or not the behavior continues to occur throughout each interval.
2. Convert the data to percent of "yes" intervals (the ratio of intervals scored to the total number of intervals multiplied by 100).
3. Use duration with a shorter recording interval as an alternative to this response measure.

E. Use momentary time sampling - the number of time intervals (usually 1-5 minutes in duration) in a specific period of time at the end of which a response is occurring.

1. Record whether (yes) or not (no) the behavior is occurring at the end of each interval.
2. Convert the data to percent of "yes" intervals (the ratio of intervals scored to the total number of intervals multiplied by 100).
3. Use frequency or duration with a shorter recording interval as an alternative to this response measure.

 

CONTENT AREA 8

DATA DISPLAY

This content area covers graphic displays of data. Cumulative records are included, but corresponding KSAs are not provided. Practitioners should be at least familiar with this recording and display method, but might not use it in applied settings. Regardless of the display used, calibration of displays, definition of behavior(s) being measured and recording times must remain constant across assessment, intervention and follow-up to ensure that accurate interpretations are made. When changes in these variables are made, comparisons across graphs cannot be made. Task 8-2 covers equal interval graphs and Task 8-3 covers Standard Celeration Charts.

TASK 8-1: Select the best data display to effectively communicate quantitative relationships.

1. Use line graphs (cumulative record, equal interval graph or Standard Celeration Chart) to display successive measurements of the same behavior across time.
2. Use equal interval graphs with any response measure and when the variant scales of non-standard equal interval graphs do not impede interpretation and decision making.
3. Use Standard Celeration Charts when staff are competent in their use, when frequency, latency, duration, or IRT are being recorded, or when the variant scales of non-standard equal interval graphs make interpretation and decision making difficult.
4. Use histograms (column graph) to display measures of central tendency for each condition of an experiment or measures that are nominal or ordinal rather than interval (e.g., sex, age).

TASK 8-2: Use equal-interval graphs.

A. Label and calibrate the horizontal and vertical axes.

1. Mark equal units of calendar time, or consecutive sessions or trials in equal intervals on the horizontal axis.
2. Indicate scale breaks where necessary on the horizontal axis.
3. Place a title on the horizontal axis consistent with the units of time, sessions, or trials.
4. Determine the response measure (e.g., frequency, duration, partial-interval recording) and the unit of measure (e.g., number of responses per 20 minutes, average number of minutes per trial for 10 trials, percent of intervals).
5. Determine the probable range of the unit of measure.
6. Determine the length of the vertical axis based on recommended ratios of the horizontal axis to the same.
7. Mark equal units of measure in equal intervals on the vertical axis.
8. Place a title on the vertical axis indicating the unit of measure and the dependent variable.
9. Create a legend that clearly identifies the variables being graphed.

B. Plot data points.

1. Determine a symbol (e.g., a dot) for the behavior.
2. At the end of each recording interval, place the symbol at the intersection of the appropriate unit of the response measure and the unit of time, or session.
3. Use a separate symbol for each behavior displayed on the same graph.

C. Display baseline, intervention changes, major environmental changes, and interruptions in data collection.

1. Designate the beginning of baseline and treatment (intervention) conditions with a solid vertical line.
2. Designate major (unplanned) environmental changes with a broken vertical line.
3. Do not record a data point if data were not collected or if the dependent variable had no opportunity to occur.
4. Do not connect data points across vertical lines or across breaks in the data.

D. Determine and describe the level, trend, and variability of data.

1. The level of any individual data point is represented by the quantitative value of the response measure.
2. The average level of a series of data points is determined by calculating the arithmetic average of the values of the response measure and representing this value with a horizontal line through the data points.
3. Trend lines are lines drawn through a series of data points representing the "direction" of change in these points.
4. Trend lines are drawn using one of these methods (1) the quarter-intersect method, (2) the split-middle method, and (3) the freehand method.
5. Trend is described as increasing, maintaining (stable), or decreasing.

TASK 8-3: Use Standard Celeration Charts.

A. Plot data points.

1. Determine a symbol for each behavior.
2. Frequency.

• Locate the appropriate day line.
• Locate the recording period floor and mark with a "broken" horizontal line.
• "Line up" the "1 and the arrow" on the frequency finder with the recording period floor.
• "Slide over" to the chart and mark the symbol on the day line.
• mark a "zero" frequency just below the recording period floor.

3. Latency, duration, or IRT.

• Locate the appropriate day line.
• Locate the number on the frequency finder which corresponds with the number of minutes recorded, and "line up" this number with the "one per minute" line on the chart.
• Locate the "1 and the arrow" on the frequency finder.
• "Slide over" to the chart and mark the symbol on the day line.

B. Display baseline, intervention changes, major environmental changes, and interruptions in data collection.

1. Designate the beginning of baseline and treatment (intervention) conditions with a solid vertical line.
2. Designate major (unplanned) environmental changes with a broken vertical line.
3. Do not record a data point if data were not collected or if the dependent variable had no opportunity to occur.
4. Do not connect data points across vertical lines or across breaks in the data.

C. Determine and describe the level, trend, and variability of data.

1. Refer to Task 8-2D for KSAs.

TASK 8-4: Use a cumulative record to display data.

 

CONTENT AREA 9

DATA INTERPRETATION

This content area addresses the interpretation of data displayed on equal-interval graphs and Standard Celeration Charts and making decisions using level, trend, variability, and the change in each. It also includes a task regarding the interpretation of cumulative records.

TASK 9-1: Determine if there has been a change in level from the last data point of the previous phase to the first data point of the current intervention.

TASK 9-2: Determine if the trend has changed from the previous phase.

TASK 9-3: Determine the discrepancy between the current level and the performance standard.

TASK 9-4: Determine if the variability has changed from the previous phase.

TASK 9-5: Continue with current phase if the level and trend have changed in the desired direction, and the variability has decreased.

TASK 9-6: Modify or discontinue phase if the level and trend have not changed in the desired direction, or the variability has not decreased or has increased.

TASK 9-7: Interpret data on a cumulative record consistent with principles of behavior.

 

ESTABLISHING, STRENGTHENING AND WEAKENING BEHAVIOR

The process of searching for functional relationships or the substantiation of hypotheses regarding functional relationships continues concomitant with efforts to attain the goals of behavior change and the attainment of intermediate and ultimate outcomes. The importance of identifying functional relationships during this period cannot be overstated, for it is through this continuing effort that sensible and effective environmental changes can be identified, implemented and/or evaluated and modified. The user, therefore, must (once again) be able to state the interrelationships between the components of this content area and the components of all other content areas included in this document. Although "Managing Emergencies" appears last in this section, the associated tasks are often necessary before and/or concomitant with beginning assessment and the introduction of behavior change procedures. Task 12-3 covers consequence based procedures. Within Task 12-3, sub-tasks A-F cover reinforcement and sub-tasks G-K cover punishment. Task 12-4 covers stimulus control based procedures. The user of this list is again cautioned to recognize that these categories of procedures are interdependent; e.g., stimulus control is established through selection by consequences.

 

CONTENT AREA 10

SELECTION OF TARGETS FOR CHANGE
AND INTERMEDIATE AND ULTIMATE OUTCOMES

Tasks 10-1 & 2 are not the sole responsibility of the behavior analyst, but are accomplished in concert with others, often including a paid support coordinator. It is the responsibility of the behavior analyst to ensure that these tasks are accomplished, however, before or while proceeding with the design and implementation of behavior change strategies.

TASK 10-1: Identify the ultimate outcomes for the person or persons involved.

1. Ultimate outcomes are statements about how the person's life style will change in terms of choice, access to reinforcers, avoidance of aversive stimuli, health and safety, interpersonal relationships, and variety and diversity of things, people and events in the person's life.

TASK 10-2: Identify sequential or concurrent intermediate outcomes.

1. Intermediate outcomes are those that bring the person closer to achieving ultimate outcomes.

TASK 10-3: Identify the behavior or behaviors targeted for change (strengthening or weakening) in observable and measurable terms.

1. Include specific information clearly identifying the specific measures and topographical characteristics (e.g., loudness, force, spatial alignment) of the behavior(s) targeted for change and the associated antecedents and consequences.
2. Precisely state the standard of performance, fluency criterioin, for the behavior(s) targeted for change.

TASK 10-4: Establish positive interpersonal relationships using behavior change procedures.

1. Identify and design behavior change strategies for behaviors that, if established or strengthened, would increase the probability that a person’s behavior would be able to reinforce the behavior of others. Arrange contingencies of reinforcement that establish the client as a generalized conditioned reinforcer for significant others in their lives.
2. Identify and design behavior change strategies for behaviors, that if weakened, would increase the probability that a person’s behavior would not be aversive to or a punisher for the behavior of others.
3. Identify and assist in removing barriers to establishing positive interpersonal relationships for a person.
4. Use reinforcer preferences to identify activities that will put the person in contact with others with similar preferences.

 

CONTENT AREA 11

General Issues Regarding the Selection of
Behavior change Procedures

See also Content Area 1, Tasks 1-4 - 1-6.

TASK 11-1: Select procedures based on hypotheses generated from behavioral assessment information.

1. Time-out is contraindicated for escape and avoidance behavior.
2. Differential reinforcement of other behavior does not directly contact the behavior to be reduced nor the functional relationships likely to be operating. Therefore, this procedure should be used with caution and typically in combination with other more direct procedures.
3. Behavior is often under multiple control. Whenever possible these different sources of control should be differentiated and procedures selected accordingly.

TASK 11-2: Select behavior change procedures that are consistent with the principles of behavior and published research.

TASK 11-3: When more than one procedure is indicated, select behavior change procedures based on competencies of the behavior analyst and other persons who will be carrying out the program.

TASK 11-4: When weakening behavior, develop a behavior replacement plan using the least restrictive interventions likely to be effective given the function of the behavior to be weakened.

1. Procedures should be directed at establishing or strengthening functionally equivalent behaviors.

 

CONTENT AREA 12

BEHAVIOR CHANGE PROCEDURES

Task 12-3: A. - F. cover reinforcement and G. - K. cover punishment. Several of the tasks (e.g., shaping) involve the combined use of consequences, stimulus control and/or establishing operations.

TASK 12-1: Use setting events and contextual or ecological variables. NOTE: Agreement on the precise nature of the things and events labeled as contextual or ecological is yet to be achieved within the filed. For example, the definition of "contextual variables" is nearly identical to that for "establishing operations." The practitioner is cautioned to paid particular attention to current discussions regarding these matters.

1. Setting events are stimulus events or contexts, including complex antecedent conditions, events, and stimulus-response interactions, that exert general control over antecedent-behavior interactions. They may precede and/or overlap with discrete antecedent-behavior relationships. Setting events may temporarily alter the function of specific discriminative stimuli.
2. Contextual (ecological) variables are non-discrete stimuli which overlap with discrete antecedent-behavior relationships. Examples include the number of persons present in a situation; where and with whom a person lives, works recreates; the variability or diversity and quantity and type of activities and tasks in the environment; daily, weekly, yearly routines and rhythms; ongoing activities; time of day; day of week; weather; room temperature; and physical surroundings.
3. Altering these variables based on the identification of functional relationships might result in the desired behavior change and attainment of intermediate or ultimate outcomes. Caution should be taken, however, to avoid inadvertently strengthening unwanted behavior. Also, ensure that the person whose behavior is the target for change is provided the opportunity to learn to make these adjustments in socially acceptable ways.
4. Some of the ecological strategies used to evoke appropriate behaviors include providing choice and engaging tasks and activities, task variation, manipulating task difficulty or response effort, increasing predictability of events and stimulus change.
5. By manipulating contextual variables such as room lighting, temperature, population density, staff ratio, the use of peer tutors, curriculum materials, olfactory cues, use of background music, placement of windows, pictures and other visual stimuli, etc. incidental learning and direct instruction can be facilitated and appropriate behavior can be evoked.

TASK 12-2: Select, develop and use incidental teaching techniques.

1. Incidental teaching or incidental training are a set of formalized procedures used to reach a specific objective by capitalizing on natural, unplanned activities or through the planned introduction of learning opportunities in the person’s typical environment.
2. Programs addressing behavior reduction, communication training, etc. should be integrated with other programs (e.g., self-care skills training) by using incidental teaching techniques for the former during the sessions for the latter.

TASK 12-3: Use consequence based interventions.

A. Determine and use reinforcers.

1. Procedures for determining functional relationships have been the most reliable way to determine whether or not and under what conditions a stimulus will function as reinforcer and the reinforcer value of a specific stimulus.
2. When appropriate, a specific objective should be to increase the availability and diversity of things and events that are reinforcing to the individual. Conditioning procedures to establish secondary positive reinforcers should be used.

B. Identify and use potential reinforcers.

1. Semi-structured and structured interviews, and non-standardized and standardized paper-and-pencil instruments (e.g., scales, surveys, inventories, checklists), are less time-consuming; however, they are less direct and less valid ways of determining potential reinforcers than systematic manipulations.
2. Naturalistic (in-vivo) direct observation procedures involve collecting data to find out what are some high probability behaviors which may be used as reinforcers (cf. Premack Principle) and/or recording a person's reaction to environmental stimuli. Direct observation is more time-consuming but more valid than interviews, etc.
3. Reinforcer sampling involves exposing an individual to, or providing an individual with, a variety of novel stimuli or activities. Forced choice procedures include the use of reinforcer menus and various standardized stimulus presentation procedures for assessing stimulus preference and potential reinforcer value. These latter measures have been found to better predict reinforcer value than interviews and paper-and-pencil measures, and may be required when more naturalistic direct observational procedures (see b above) fail to yield potential reinforcers.

C. Select and use appropriate parameters and values of reinforcement.

1. Parameters of reinforcement include: Timing, quantity, magnitude, duration, and variety.
2. Deliver reinforcers immediately following a response (i.e., generally within 0.5 seconds). The longer the latency of delivery, the more likely that an intervening response will be reinforced.
3. Determine the optimum quantity, magnitude, and/or duration of a reinforcer to deliver contingent on a specific response in relationship to the following: Schedule of reinforcement, establishing operations, operant rate, effort, and organismic variables (e.g., mass).
4. Use a variety of reinforcers and generalized conditioned reinforcers.
5. Account for the effects of establishing operations.

D. Select and use appropriate schedules of positive reinforcement.

1. A schedule of reinforcement is a rule that establishes the probability that a response will produce reinforcement.
2. Schedules of reinforcement are either simple or complex.

• Simple schedules include Fixed ratio (FR), fixed interval (FI), variable ratio (VR), and variable interval (VI). In FR and VR schedules a response is reinforced depending on the number of occurrences of the response. In FI and VI the first response to occur after a specified amount of time is reinforced. In fixed schedules the response requirements are constant from one response to the next; in variable schedules the actual requirement changes from reinforcer to reinforcer.
• Complex schedules include sequences of simple schedules (e.g., multiple, mixed, chained and tandem), simultaneous schedules with 1 response (e.g., conjunctive, alternating, and interlocking), simultaneous schedules with 2 responses (e.g., concurrent), and differentiation schedules (e.g., DRL, DRH, DRO; see Task 12-3: F.).
• Each schedule of reinforcement is associated with a different pattern of performance.

1. Some increase in rate is possible by putting a limited hold on interval schedules of reinforcement.
2. Schedules of reinforcement must be thinned gradually to avoid decreased performance.
3. Some increase in the magnitude or quantity of a reinforcer may be desirable as the schedule of reinforcement is thinned.
4. A continuous reinforcement (CRF or FR1) schedule is used when we first begin to strengthen a very low rate behavior. Intermittent schedules of reinforcement are used to maintain established behaviors or, in some cases, to produce further increases in rate. Variable schedules are used when constant and stable performance is desired.
5. Non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) has been shown to be effective in reducing behavior that is maintained by the consequence used in an NCR schedule.

E. Address variables affecting reinforcement effectiveness.

1. Establishing operations temporarily alter the effectiveness of specific reinforcers.
2. The greater the effort involved in responding, the lower the probability of a behavior (other factors, such as the schedule of reinforcement, being equal).

F. Use differential reinforcement.

1. Differential reinforcement of high rates of responding (DRH) is the reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion (i.e., in rapid succession at a preset rate).
2. Differential reinforcement of diminishing rates of responding (DRD) is the reinforcement of responses gradually decreasing rates of a target behavior (e.g., reinforcing the behavior only if it occurs fewer than 4 times per hour; then, no more than 3; etc.).
3. Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) is the delivery of reinforcers contingent on the nonoccurrence of a response for a given time interval, and the reinforcement of whichever other behavior is occurring at that time. This procedure is sometimes called omission training or differential reinforcement of zero rates of responding. Variations of DRO include momentary DRO and DROP (Progressive DRO). Use mean IRT of the target behavior to determine the reinforcement interval.
4. Differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (DRL): a schedule of reinforcement where a reinforcer is delivered at the end of a specified time interval contingent on the occurrence of fewer than a specified number of responses.
5. Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is the selection and reinforcement of specific behaviors that are appropriate alternatives to (but not incompatible with) a target behavior which, in turn, is not reinforced. It may be best to use functionally equivalent alternative behaviors which are topographically dissimilar to the target behavior. This procedure is sometimes called Alt-R.
6. Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI), also referred to as differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA): a schedule of reinforcement where a reinforcer is delivered contingent on the occurrence of a particular behavior topographically defined as being incompatible with the target behavior.

G. Determine and use punishers.

1. Procedures for determining functional relationships (Content Area 6) have been the most reliable way to determine whether or not a stimulus is a punisher and the punishment value of specific stimuli.

H. Identify and use potential punishers.

1. The same procedures used to identify potential reinforcers can be used so long as caution is taken to protect the person from unnecessary exposure to aversive stimuli.

I. Select and use appropriate parameters, values and schedules of punishment.

1. Deliver punishers immediately following a response (i.e., generally within 0.5 seconds).
2. Use conditioned aversive stimuli whenever possible.
3. Deliver punishment at as a high intensity every time the behavior targeted for change occurs.
4. Use high intensity, high frequency punishment schedules. If mild or low intensity punishment is used, suppression of behavior will be slower and the likelihood of adaptation to the punisher is increased. Punishment is most effective if used on a continuous schedule as opposed to an intermittent schedule.
5. When using punishment, increase the number of appropriate stimuli and activities which are reinforcing to the individual and use conditioning procedures to establish additional positive reinforcers.

J. Address variables affecting punishment effectiveness.

1. Opportunity to avoid the consequence.
2. Clarity of rules.

K. State the possible negative effects and limitations of punishers in changing behavior and their effects on behavior.

1. Punishment may result in undesirable conditioned emotional responses.
2. Punishment may evoke countercontrol responses including the use of force to escape or avoid the discriminative stimuli for punishment.
3. Punishment may serve to increase the use of punishment by caretakers through negative reinforcement.
4. Punishment may serve as a model for the persons involved for handling similar situations.
5. Punishment may cause the situation and people associated with the punisher to become conditioned aversive stimuli.
6. Punishment does not directly establish behavior; it only decreases behavior.

L. Use extinction.

1. Use strategies which help to ensure complete withholding of reinforcement of the behavior targeted for change.
2. Intermittent reinforcement makes behavior more resistant to extinction by incorporating extinction into the reinforcement schedule. Occasional reinforcement of the behavior during extinction will result in increased resistance to extinction.
3. Precautions to take into account when using extinction:

• The behavior which was previously reinforced might increase in frequency before there is a decrease.
• Withholding reinforcers is an event which may evoke escape or avoidance responses or intense countercontrol.
• Potential for harm if the behavior targeted for change is allowed to occur unchecked. Behaviors which do not pose harm to the individual or others or property are easiest to extinguish in an applied setting, although extinction should not be ruled out for behaviors that do pose such risks.
• Spontaneous recovery.

TASK 12-4: Use stimulus control strategies.

A. Use discrimination training.

1. Involves differentially reinforcing one behavior in the presence of one stimulus, while, either in the absence of that stimulus or in the presence of another stimulus, that same behavior is either placed on extinction, punished, reinforced on a leaner schedule, or is the target behavior in a DRO, and/or a different behavior is reinforced.

B. Use stimulus equivalence.

C. Use instructions.

1. Instructions are verbal antecedent stimuli which many times are efficient ways to evoke new behavior, which can then be reinforced. Instructions may be oral or written.
2. The variables influencing the effectiveness of instructions include whether the person's repertoire includes behavior under instructional control or whether rule governance needs to be developed; whether the verbal stimuli are prompts or the actual discriminative stimuli of concern; and the rates at which instructions are presented.
3. Instructions may be more effective when combined with other procedures such as modeling, prompting, and rehearsal.

 

 

 

D. Use modeling.

1. Models are antecedent stimuli which are topographically similar to the target imitative behavior. Modeling consists of presenting a model that sets the occasion for the imitative response, which is then reinforced.
2. The variables influencing the effectiveness of modeling include similarity of person modeling (model) to potential imitator, model prestige and physical attractiveness, emphasizing critical aspects of the modeled stimuli, whether or not the modeled behavior is reinforced, the imitator's "attention" to the model, the "difficulty" of the modeled behavior, and whether a mastery or coping model is presented.
3. When a person does not imitate modeled behavior, imitation training is appropriate which should lead to generalized imitation.
4. Modeling may be more effective when combined with other procedures such as instructions, prompting, rehearsal, and verbal feedback (reinforcement).

E. Use prompting.

1. Prompts are supplementary antecedent stimuli used to evoke a response in the presence of the discriminative stimuli which eventually will control the target behavior.
2. Common types of prompts include verbal, gestural, modeling, and tactual or physical. Sometimes a distinction is made between the latter, which involves only touching the person or his clothes, and manual or physical guidance, which involves motoring the person through a task. In addition, movement cues, position cues, and redundancy cues are used as prompts.
3. Fading is a technique to gradually transfer stimulus control from prompts to other discriminative stimuli. Specific procedures to transfer stimulus control include most-to-least prompts (or fading out), least-to-most prompts (or fading in), graduated guidance, time delay, stimulus fading, and stimulus shaping.
4. Besides being used in skill acquisition programs, prompts may be used to evoke a low probability behavior, to evoke a chain of behavior by prompting the first step (response priming), and to prompt behaviors incompatible with an inappropriate behavior.

F. Use contingency contracting.

1. Contingency contracting, also called behavioral contracting, refers either to the negotiated goals and procedures of a behavior analysis program or to a document that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to, or delivery of, a specified reward.

G. Use direct instruction, precision teaching, discrete trials, and personalized system of instruction (PSI), or consult with teachers who use these systems and help them to maximize their effectiveness.

1. Direct instruction or precision teaching is an instructional method that involves using a prepared curriculum and very specific behavioral techniques.
2. Discrete trials is an instructional method in which a teacher sequentially presents a discriminative stimulus and provides a consequence for the student's response for a number of trials (e.g., "Good" and edible if correct; "No, that's wrong" if incorrect). Usually, data are collected on whether or not the response was correct. A variation uses prompting and fading procedures if the student does not respond or responds incorrectly.
3. Personalized system of instruction (PSI), also known as the "Keller Plan," is a method of teaching based on the principles of behavior and characterized by "going-at-your-own-pace," the use of proctors, and other features.

H. Use discriminative stimuli that inhibit responding.

1. Conditioned aversive stimuli: are those that are paired or associated with unconditioned aversive stimuli and, therefore, acquire their properties.
2. S^deltas ("extinction cues").

TASK 12-5: Use establishing operations.

1. Establishing operations may be used to evoke behavior or alter the stimulus function of some event or stimulus.

TASK 12-6: Develop and implement shaping procedures.

1. Shaping involves the differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a terminal target behavior.
2. Shaping can be done across or within response topographies.
3. The efficiency of shaping can be increased by using discriminative stimuli such as prompts.

TASK 12-7: Develop and implement chaining procedures.

1. A behavior chain is a complex behavior consisting of two or more temporally sequential responses, each associated with a specific stimulus condition.
2. A task analysis involves breaking down a behavior chain into its component responses; that it, complex tasks are broken down into small teachable units.
3. Forward chaining, backward chaining, and concurrent chaining (also called whole task or total task presentation) are procedures commonly used to teach complex behaviors.

TASK 12-8: Develop and implement token economy procedures.

1. A token economy is a behavior change system which involves the identification of specific behaviors to be reinforced (and, in some cases, punished), a medium of exchange such as tokens or points (generalized conditioned reinforcers), and backup reinforcers which are purchased with the tokens.
2. Advance preparation for implementing a token economy include selecting tokens, defining behaviors and rules, selecting backup reinforcers, and establishing a ratio of exchange. In addition, actual procedures must be written to specify such things as how tokens will be dispensed and exchanged, and what will happen if the requirement to earn a token is not met. The system should be field tested and data collected before actual implementation.
3. Initial training for participants in a token economy program may range from verbal instructions and modeling to extensive discrete trial conditioning procedures.
4. Token economy programs may include response cost procedures to punish inappropriate behavior and breaking of "house rules".
5. Token economy programs are not static, but evolve and are revised depending on the performance of participants.
6. Token economy programs should be faded out gradually through the use of molar systems (see Task 12-9) and/or self-management procedures (see Task 12-10).

TASK 12-9: Use a molar (stage or levels) system.

A. Determine when it is appropriate to use a molar system.

1. When there are multiple behavior change targets.
2. When the system will be implemented with a behaviorally similar population.
3. When similar target environments exist across the target population.
4. When the target population's behavior is controlled, somewhat, by delayed. or mediated, contingencies.

B. List the advantages of a molar system.

1. A molar system simplifies staff training.
2. A molar system provides systematic, rather than arbitrary, guidelines for decisions regarding the individual's behavior.
3. A molar system can offset the individual differences that control decisions regarding the person's behavior.

C. List the essential components and possible problems of a molar system.

TASK 12-10: Select, develop and use "self control" strategies - the design, arrangement, and implementation of behavior change procedures that include behaviors of the person whose behavior is targeted for change that are likely to suppress unwanted behavior and/or evoke or reinforce desired behavior.

1. Control ultimately comes from the environment.
2. Teach the person to identify and consequate the behavior targeted for change.
3. Teach the person to arrange contingencies to support self-behavior reinforcement (e.g., engage in commitment responses to display and/or reinforce the target behavior).
4. Teach the person to identify and display alternative responses that are competitive and/or incompatible with the target behavior.
5. Teach the person to identify private and public precursors to the target behavior (e.g., discriminative stimuli, establishing operations).
6. Teach the person to identify the immediate and delayed positive and negative consequences of engaging in the target behavior.

 

CONTENT AREA 13

GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE

TASK 13-1: Select behavior change targets that will contact natural contingencies.

1. Identify the natural contingencies and the associated performance requirements of the behavior selected for change. Natural contingencies are functional arrangements between behavior, antecedent, and consequent events that occur in the environments in which the behavior of interest is to be maintained (the target environment).

TASK 13-2: Design behavior change procedures to promote stimulus and response generalization.

1. Whenever possible, direct instruction should take place in the target environment adding to it only as much in the way of contrived contingencies as is necessary to efficiently obtain the desired behavior change.
2. Use general case responding methods.
3. Select antecedents to be used during direct instruction that can be gradually altered to approximate the stimuli in the target environment.
4. Vary the prosthetic instruments (e.g., bicycle, eating utensils, computer keyboard) mediating the response(s) and consequence(s) to promote response generalization.

TASK 13-3: Design behavior change procedures to promote maintenance - Maintenance refers to the extent to which changes in behavior engendered by a contingency persist over time given that the contingency remains unchanged. It is also used to refer to a collection of procedures designed to maintain behavior at the current level after an acquisition phase.

1. Gradually approximate the antecedent stimulus conditions of the target environment by fading in natural distracters within the training environment.
2. Select antecedent stimuli for the training environment that can be altered to gradually approximate the stimuli in the target environment
3. Gradually change the nature of consequent stimulus conditions from contrived to natural reinforcers and punishing stimuli.
4. Gradually approximate the schedule of consequent stimuli in the target environment within the training environment.
5. Gradually approximate the consequent stimulus conditions of the target environment by delaying reinforcement within the training environment or by varying the types of reinforcement within the training environment.
6. Arrange contingencies within the target environment to promote generality (e.g., train the repertoires of others).

 

CONTENT AREA 14

MANAGING EMERGENCIES

TASK 14-1: Define an emergency situation

1. The sudden, generally unexpected occurrence of some action that requires immediate action, or
2. Some expected action that requires immediate action and that occurs at such a low rate that consequation of the behavior using a consequence-based behavior change procedure is not warranted, or
3. Some expected action that requires immediate action and that occurs in a situation wherein interim procedures are required while behavior analysis services are put in place.

TASK 14-2: State the role and function of emergency procedures

1. Emergency procedures are used to protect persons engaging in severe self-injurious, aggressive, and/or destructive behaviors from serious damage or harm to themselves, others around them, and their physical environment.
2. Emergency procedures are meant to gain control over an emergency situation; they are not meant as therapeutic interventions.

TASK 14-3: State the essential components and precautions for managing emergency procedures

1. An emergency plan should be only one part of an Active programming strategies must always accompany. Thus, even when addressing very low rate behaviors, behavioral assessment
2. The frequency with which they are used should be as low as possible (absolutely necessary).
3. Response classes that constitute an emergency must be clearly defined.
4. The identification precursors should be attempted.
5. Specific procedures to be implemented must be identified and conveyed to all concerned.
6. Staffing patterns and logistical strategies must be identified.
7. Adequate staff support and assistance must be assured.
8. Reporting, monitoring and evaluation procedures must be implemented.
9. The potential unwanted effects of the procedure must be addressed, avoid "dangerous" interactions and minimize confrontational nature of interactions.

 

 

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES

 

CONTENT AREA 15

TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY

The transfer of technology often starts during the initial assessment period either with the provision of information regarding specific approaches or direct instruction on the use of information gathering procedures and continues throughout the behavior change intervention. The competent use of applicable behavior analysis by others is the ultimate goal, with minimal or no direct involvement by the professional practitioner. The transfer of technology is one necessary step toward this outcome. However, caution must be taken to convey the interrelated nature of the technology with ethical standards, basic principles, and functional relationships, i.e., to avoid teaching only "cookbook" or piecemeal approaches.

TASK 15-1: Select, develop and use competency-based training for persons who will be responsible for carrying out behavioral assessment and behavior change procedures.

1. Assess for need for training.
2. Clearly define training objectives - establish competencies that implement individual and family support plans or strategic plans of agencies/businesses. Use as the ultimate measure of staff performance the level of client progress as indicated by data on targets for change and intermediate and ultimate outcomes.
3. Clearly define training procedures.
4. Establish methods for measuring results of training on the performance of each participant.
5. Use the most effective training technology available.
6. Use standard classroom, simulations and in situ training methods.
7. Arrange for trainee feedback for use in adjusting training.
8. Train trainees to train others.
9. Use competency based proficiency checklists, data, reliability checks, etc.
10. Describe a system for advanced development of skills in behavior analysis (national or regional conferences, workshops or seminars, professional association membership and participation, library collections, recommended readings and journal reviews in literature of applied behavior analysis and developmental disabilities, discussion groups, formal course work, etc.).

TASK 15-2: Select, develop and use effective performance monitoring systems.

1. Determine contingencies of reinforcement likely to strengthen and maintain performance.
2. Monitor performance across all relevant contexts.
3. Use competency-based proficiency checklists, data reliability checks, program schedule compliance tracking systems, etc. Use the same measurement system used to initially train and evaluate performance.
4. Use the most effective technology available.
5. Staff should be given an opportunity to respond to feedback.
6. Describe a system to compare individual staff performance with prior measures (graphs, etc.).

 

CONTENT AREA 16

SUPPORT FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS SERVICES

TASK 16-1: Establish internal systems that support the provision of behavior analysis services.

1. Use methods from previous content areas to design and implement contingencies that strengthen and maintain modes of interaction between and among participants in a particular social context that, in turn, support the provision of behavior analysis services.
2. Identify critical participants and impart to them fundamental information about applied behavior analysis that allows these persons to make informed choices regarding these services and to evaluate the results obtained through the application of behavior analysis.
3. Use methods for ensuring that the results of behavior analysis services are properly conveyed to all participants and that the satisfaction of the participants with these results and the methods used is known.
4. Discriminate sensitive issues that require special attention within the local community.
5. Identify and interact with appropriate persons to receive communications regarding sensitive issues (administrator, supervisor, funding, regulatory and monitoring agencies, etc.).

TASK 16-2: Select, develop and use methods that establish support for behavior analysis services from persons not directly involved with these services.

1. Use methods described in pervious content areas to asses the need for, identify probable contingencies, establish those contingencies and evaluate results relative to behavior that supports behavior analysis services and applied behavior analysis in general.
2. Identify critical participants and impart to them fundamental information about applied behavior analysis that allows these persons to make informed choices regarding these services and to evaluate the results obtained through the application of behavior analysis.
3. Discriminate typical program outcome measures that warrant reporting to administrators, supervisors, funding agencies, etc..
4. Aggregate and display data on sensitive issues and program outcome measures for ease of interpretation by persons not trained in traditional behavior analysis data displays.
5. Discriminate sensitive issues that require special attention within the local community (public display of aggressive or sexual behavior, public perception of regarding client behavior risks, agency treatment procedure, selection and rates of use, and appropriateness of client placements in community, police contacts, crisis center placements, injuries, etc.).
6. Identify appropriate levels of personnel to receive communications regarding sensitive issues.

TASK 16-3: Secure the support of others necessary in identifying, implementing, and maintaining an array of supports and services that are needed in the maintenance of a person’s behavioral repertoires in his or her natural settings.

1. Learn what the person and his/her support network of family, friends and/or other key players can contribute to the maintenance of this person’s behavioral repertoire.
2. Learn what other professionals and paraprofessionals can contribute in expertise, services and/or supports.
3. Work collaboratively with other professionals, paraprofessionals, the person and members of hi or her support network to establish and maintain the services and supports needed by this person.

APPENDIX I

 

Column 1 gives the task or sub-task number. Column 2 provides the task statement. Column 3 (CBA) shows the number of questions for the corresponding task/sub-tasks that will be asked on the Behavior Analyst examination. Column 4 (ABA) shows the number of questions that will be asked on the Associate Behavior Analyst examination. Where the "number of questions" appears on a line without a task statement the questions will be distributed across the tasks below that line. Also, where the number of questions appears with a task statement that has sub-tasks and not with the sub-tasks the questions will be distributed at random across the sub-tasks.

 

CONTENT AREA 1: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 1-1	Obtain consent within applicable legal and ethical standards.	1	1
TASK 1-2	Identify functional relationships within applicable ethical standards.	1	1
TASK 1-3	Select targets for change and intermediate and ultimate outcomes within applicable ethical standards.	2	2
TASK 1-4	Decide when to implement behavior change procedures within applicable ethical standards.	2	2
TASK 1-5	Select behavior change procedures within applicable ethical standards.	2	2
TASK 1-6	Implement behavior change procedures within applicable ethical standards.	2	2
TASK 1-7	Evaluate intervention within applicable ethical standards.	1	1
TASK 1-8	Protect confidentiality within applicable ethical standards.	1	1
TASK 1-9	Use emergency procedures within applicable ethical standards.	1	1

 

CONTENT AREA 2: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 2-1	State the underlying assumptions of behavior analysis.	1	1
TASK 2-2	Distinguish between behaviorism, the experimental analysis of behavior, and applied behavior analysis.	1	1
T ASK 2-3	Describe the dimensions of applied behavior analysis (ABA).	1	1
TASK 2-4	Interpret articles from the behavior analytic literature.	1	1

 

CONTENT AREA 3: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 3-1	Define behavior/response/response class.	1	1
TASK 3-2	Define environment.	1	1
TASK 3-3	Define stimulus.	1	1
TASK 3-4	Define consequence.	1	1
TASK 3-5	Define antecedent.	1	1
TASK 3-6	Define reinforcement.	1	1
TASK #	TASK	CBA		ABA
TASK 3-7	Define punishment.	1	1
TASK 3-8	Define stimulus control.	1	1
TASK 3-9	Define establishing operation.	1	1
TASK 3-10	Define contingency.	1	1
TASK 3-11	Define functional relationships.	1	1
TASK 3-12	Define extinction.	1	1
TASK 3-13	Define generalization.	1	1
TASK 3-14	Describe the respondent conditioning model.	1	1
TASK 3-15	Describe the operant conditioning model.	1	1
TASK 3-16	Define contingency-shaped and rule governed behavior and distinguish between examples of each.	1	1

 

CONTENT AREA 4: BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND RATIONALE
TASK #	TASK	CBA		ABA
TASK 4-1	State the primary characteristics of descriptive analysis.		1	1
TASK 4-2	State the rationale for conducting a descriptive analysis.		2	2
TASK 4-3	State the primary characteristics of the process of systematic manipulations (demonstrating functional relationships).		2	1
TASK 4-4	State the rationale for using systematic manipulations (demonstrating functional relationships) and for determining the reliability and generality of functional relationships.		1	1

 

CONTENT AREA 5: DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 5-1	Use various methods to gather descriptive data.	3	3
TASK 5-2	Use various methods to organize and interpret descriptive data.	2	2

 

CONTENT AREA 6: SYSTEMATIC MANIPULATIONS
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 6-1	Use various methodologies to demonstrate functional relationships and to determine the reliability and generality of functional relationships through direct and systematic replication, respectively.	2	1

 

 

TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
		2		0
TASK 6-2	Use withdrawal (reversal) design.
TASK 6-3	Use alternating treatments design.
TASK 6-4	Use changing criterion design.
TASK 6-5	Use multiple baseline design.
TASK 6-6	Identify factors particular to applied settings that must be managed when attempting to demonstrate functional relationships.	2		1
TASK 6-7	Complete a component analysis (e.g., determining effective component(s) of a treatment package).	1
TASK 6-8	Complete a parametric analysis (e.g., determining effective parametric values of consequences, such as duration or magnitude).	1

 

CONTENT AREA 7: MEASUREMENT OF BEHAVIOR
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 7-1:	Distinguish direct measures of properties of behavior (see Task 3-1) from indirect measures of properties of behavior.	3	2
TASK 7-2:	Use direct measures of behavior (A - D).	6	6
A.	Use rate (sometimes referred to as frequency).
B.	Use duration.
C.	Use latency.
D.	Use inter-response time (IRT).
TASK 7-3:	Use indirect measures of behavior (A - E).	5	0
A.	Use percent of occurrence.
B.	Use trials to criterion.
C.	Use partial-interval recording.
D.	Use whole-interval recording.
E.	Use momentary time sampling.

 

CONTENT AREA 8: DATA DISPLAY
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 8-1:	Select the best data display to effectively communicate quantitative relationships.	4	4
TASK 8-2:	Use equal-interval graphs (A - D).	6	6
A.	Label and calibrate the horizontal and vertical axes.
B.	Plot data points.
C.	Display baseline, intervention changes, major environmental changes, and interruptions in data collection.

 

 

TASK #	TASK	CBA		ABA
D.	Determine and describe the level, trend, and variability of data displayed.
TASK 8-3:	Use Standard Celeration Charts (A - C)	3	0
A.	Plot data points.
B.	Display baseline, intervention changes, major environmental changes, and interruptions in data collection.
C.	Determine and describe the level, trend, and variability of data.
TASK 8-4	Use a cumulative record to display data.	1	0

 

CONTENT AREA 9: DATA INTERPRETATION
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
		4	4
TASK 9-1	Determine if there has been a change in level from the last data point of the previous phase to the first data point of the current intervention.
TASK 9-2	Determine if the trend has changed from the previous phase.
TASK 9-3	Determine the discrepancy between the current level and the performance standard.
TASK 9-4	Determine if the variability has changed from the previous phase.
TASK 9-5	Continue with current phase if the level and trend have changed in the desired direction, and the variability has decreased.
TASK 9-6	Make decisions based on interpretation of level, trend and variability. Modify or discontinue phase if the level and trend have not changed in the desired direction, or the variability has not decreased or has increased.
TASK 9-7	Interpret data on a cumulative record consistent with principles of behavior.

 

CONTENT AREA 10: SELECTION OF TARGETS FOR CHANGE AND INTERMEDIATE AND ULTIMATE OUTCOMES
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 10-1:	Identify the ultimate outcomes for the person or persons involved.	2	2
TASK 10-2:	Identify sequential or concurrent intermediate outcomes.	2	2
TASK 10-3:	Identify the behavior or behaviors targeted for change in observable and measurable terms.	2	2
TASK 10-4:	Establish positive interpersonal relationships using behavior change procedures.	1	1

 

CONTENT AREA 11: General Issues
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 11-1:	Select procedures based on hypotheses generated from behavioral assessment data.	2	2
TASK 11-2:	Select behavior change procedures that are consistent with the principles of behavior and published research.	2	2
TASK 11-3:	When more than one procedure is indicated, select behavior change procedures based on competencies of the behavior analyst and other persons who will be carrying out the program.	1	1
TASK 11-4:	When weakening behavior, develop a behavior replacement plan using the least restrictive interventions likely to be effective given the function of the behavior to be weakened.	2	2

 

CONTENT AREA 12: BEHAVIOR CHANGE PROCEDURES
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 12-1:	Use setting events and contextual or ecological variables.	2	2
TASK 12-2:	Select, develop and use incidental teaching techniques.	1	1
TASK 12-3:	Use consequence based interventions (A - L)
A.	Determine and use reinforcers.	2	2
B.	Identify and use potential reinforcers.	2	2
C.	Select and use appropriate parameters and values of reinforcement.	2	2
D.	Select and use appropriate schedules of positive reinforcement.	2	2
E.	Address variables affecting reinforcement effectiveness.	1	1
F.	Use differential reinforcement.	6	6
G.	Determine and use punishers.	1	1
H.	Identify and use potential punishers.	1	1
I.	Select and use appropriate parameters, values and schedules of punishment.	1	1
J.	Address variables affecting punishment effectiveness.	1	1
K.	State the possible negative effects and limitations of punishers in changing behavior and their effects on behavior.	2	2
L.	Use extinction.	1	1
TASK 12-4:	Use stimulus control strategies (A - H)	5	5
A.	Use discrimination training.
B.	Use stimulus equivalence.
C.	Use instructions.
D.	Use modeling.
E.	Use prompting.
F.	Use contingency contracting.
TASK #	TASK	CBA		ABA
G.	Use direct instruction, precision teaching, discrete trials, and personalized system of instruction (PSI), or consult with teachers who use these systems and help them to maximize their effectiveness.
H	Use discriminative stimuli that inhibit responding.
TASK 12-5:	Use establishing operations.	2	2
TASK 12-6:	Develop and implement shaping procedures.	2	2
TASK 12-7:	Develop and implement chaining procedures.	1	1
TASK 12-8:	Develop and implement token economy procedures.	1	1
TASK 12-9	Use a molar (stage or levels) system
A.	Determine when it is appropriate to use a molar system.
B.	List the advantages of a molar system.
C.	List the essential components and possible problems of a molar system.
TASK 12-10:	Select, develop and use "self control" strategies.	1	1

 

CONTENT AREA 13: GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 13-1:	Select behavior change targets that will contact natural contingencies.	2	2
TASK 13-2:	Design behavior change procedures to promote stimulus and response generalization.	2	2
TASK 13-3:	Design behavior change procedures to promote maintenance.	2	2

 

CONTENT AREA 14: MANAGING EMERGENCIES
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 14-1:	Define an emergency situation.	1	1
TASK 14-2:	State the role and function of emergency procedures.	1	1
TASK 14-3:	State the essential components and precautions for managing emergency procedures.	1	1

 

CONTENT AREA 15: TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
TASK 15-1:	Select, develop and use competency-based training for persons who will be responsible for carrying out behavioral assessment and behavior change procedures.	2	2
TASK 15-2:	Select, develop and use effective performance monitoring systems.	2	2

 

CONTENT AREA 16: SUPPORT FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS SERVICES
TASK #	TASK	CBA	ABA
		2	0
TASK 16-1:	Establish internal systems that support the provision of behavior analysis services.
TASK 16-2:	Select, develop and use methods that establish support for behavior analysis services from persons not directly involved with these services.
TASK 16-3	Secure the support of others necessary in identifying, implementing, and maintaining an array of supports and services that are needed in the maintenance of a person’s behavioral repertoires in his or her natural settings.

 

APPENDIX II

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

General Texts

 

Each of these texts has relevance for all or most of the content areas. Especially relevant content areas are listed in parentheses after the citation where applicable.

 

Carr, E.G., Levin, L., McConnachie, G., Carlson, J.I., Kemp, D.C., and Smith, C.E. (1994). Communication based intervention for problem behavior: A users guide for producing positive change. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes.

Cooper, J.0., Heron, T.E., and Heward, W.L. (1987). Applied behavior analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Johnston, J.M. and Pennypacker, H. S. (1993) Strategies and tactics of human behavioral research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. (Characteristics and Definitions, Basic Principles, and Behavioral Assessment-All).

Kazdin, A.E. (1993). Behavior modification in applied settings, Fifth Edition. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cote Publishing Company.

Malott, R.W., Whaley, D.L., Malott, M.E. (1993). Elementary principles of behavior, Second Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Martin, G. & Pear, J. (1992). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it. Fourth Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Michael, J.L. (1993). Concepts and principles of behavior analysis. Kalamazoo, MI: SABA. (Characteristics and Definitions, Basic Principles)

Miller, L.K. (1980). Principles of everyday behavior analysis. Second Edition. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. New York: Appletton-Century-Crofts. (Characteristics and Definitions, Basic Principles, Social/Cultural issues)

Skinner, B.F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Knopf. (Characteristics and Definitions, Basic Principles, Social/Cultural issues)

Sulzer-Azaroff, B. & Mayer, G.R. (1991). Behavior analysis for lasting change. New York: Holz, Rinehart and Winston.

Sulzer-Azaroff, B. & Reese E.P. (1982). Applying behavior analysis: A program for developing staff competencies. New York: Holtz, Rinehart & Winston.

Van Houten, R. and Axelrod, S. (Eds.) (1993). Behavior analysis and treatment. New York: Plenum Press. (Ethics, Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Change Procedures).

 

Theoretical/Conceptual

Content Area 1

Ethical Considerations

Bannerman, D.J., Sheldon, J.B., Sherman, I.A., & Harchik, A.E. (1990). Balancing the rights to habilitation with the right to personal liberties: The rights of people with developmental disabilities to eat too many doughnuts and take a nap. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), 23, 79-89.

Butterfield, E.C. (1990). Serious self- injury: The ethics of treatment and research. In A.C. Repp & N.N. Singh (Eds.). Perspectives on the use of nonaversive and aversive interventions for persons with developmental disabilities. Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Publishing. Pp. 255-260.

Feldman, M.A. (1990). Balancing freedom from harm and right to treatment for persons with developmental disabilities. In Repp & Singh. Pp. 261-271.

Florida Association for Behavior Analysis (FABA). The behavior analyst's code of ethics. Tallahassee, FL: FABA.

Griffith, R.G. (1983). The administrative issues: An ethical and legal perspective. In Axelrod & Apsche (Eds.), The effects of punishment on human behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pp. 317-337.

Martin, G. & Pear, J. (1988). Chapter 29: Ethical issues, Pp. 433-450.

Singh, N.N., Loyd, J.W., & Kendall, K.A. (1990). Nonaversive and aversive interventions: Issues. In Repp & Singh. Pp. 3-16.

Stein, T.J. (1975). Some ethical considerations of short-term workshops in the principles and methods of behavior modification. JABA, 8, 113-115.

Sulzer-Azaroff & Reese (1982), Chapter 2: Ethics and accountability.

Van Houten, R., Axelrod, S., Bailey, J.S., Favell, J.E., Foxx, R., lwata, B., & Lovaas, O.I. (1988). The right to effective behavioral treatment. JABA, 18, 381-384.

Content Area 2

Characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. JABA, 1, 91-97.

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1987). Some still-current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. JABA, 20, 313-327.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward, (1987). Chapter 8: Introduction to analysis, Pp. 142-151.

Cooper, J.0., Heron, T.E., & Heward, W.L. (1987).

Kazdin, A.E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings. Chapter 1, Pp. 20-25.

Sulzer-Azaroff & Reese (1982). Chapter 15: Epilogue: Competence in applying behavior analysis.

Sulzer-Azaroff, B. & Reese E.P. (1982). Chapter 1: Introduction - A model for applying behavior analysis, Pp. 1-12.

Content Area 3

Basic Principles of Behavior

Blakely, E. & Schillinger, H. (1987). Rules: Function-altering contingency-specifying stimuli. The Behavior Analyst, 10, 183-187.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 2: Basic concepts.

Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discriminative and motivational functions of stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 149-155.

Reynolds, G.S. (1975, 1968). Pp. 39-50.

Schillinger, H. & Blakely, E. (1987). Function-altering effects of contingency-specifying stimuli. The Behavior Analyst, 10, 41-45.

Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appletton-Century- Crofts. Page 6: "A definition of behavior".

Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. Pages 127-132.

Skinner, B.F. (1974). Chapter 1: The causes of behavior, Pp. 9-20.

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Free Press. Pp. 62-66.

Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. New York: Appletton-Century-Crofts. From Chapter 6, Pp. 146-152.

Sulzer-Azaroff, B. & Mayer, G.R. (1991). Behavior analysis for lasting change. Chapter 15: Stimulus control: How it develops, Pp. 247-263.

Wahler, R.G. & Fox, J.J. (1981). Setting events in applied behavior analysis: Toward a conceptual and methodological expansion. JABA, 14, 327-338.

Behavioral Assessment

Content Area 4

Characteristics and Rationale

Durand, V.M. & Crimmins, D.B. (1988). Identifying the variables maintaining self-injurious behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 18, 99-117.

Hawkins, R.P. (1979). The functions of assessment: implications for selection and development of devices for assessing repertoires in clinical, educational, and other settings. JABA, 12, 501-516. Reprinted in lwata, B., Bailey, J, Fuqua, R.W., Neef, N., Page, T., & Reid, D. (Eds., 1989). Methodological issues in applied behavior analysis 1968-1988. JABA Reprint Series, Volume 3. Lawrence, Kansas: Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, pp. 148-163. Pp. 149-151.

Mace, F.C., Lalli, J.S., & Pinter Lalli, E. (1991). Functional analysis and treatment of aberrant behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 12, 155-180.

O’Neill, R.E., Horner, R.H., Albin, R.W., Storey, K., & Sprague, J.R. (1990). Functional analysis of problem behavior: A practical assessment guide. Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Publishing Company.

Repp, A.C., Felce, D., & Barton, L.E. (1988). Basing the treatment of stereotypic and self-injurious behaviors on hypotheses of their causes. JABA, 21, 281-289.

Repp, A.C., Singh, N.N., Olinger, E., & Olson, D.R. (1990). The use of functional analyses to test causes of self-injurious behavior: Rationale and future directions. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 34, 95-105.

Steege, M.W., Wacker, D.P., Berg, W.K., Cigrand, K.K., & Cooper, L.J. (1989). The use of behavioral assessment to prescribe and evaluate treatments for severely handicapped children. JABA, 22, 23-33.

Wolf, N.M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. JABA, 11, 203-214.

Content Area 5

Descriptive Analysis

Bailey, J.S. & Pyles, D.A.M.(1989). Behavioral diagnostics. In E. Cipani (Ed.), The treatment of severe behavior disorders: Behavior analysis approaches. Washington, D.C.: American Association on Mental Retardation, Pp. 85-107.

Charlop, M., Schreibman, L., Mason, J., & Vesey, W. (1981). Behavior-setting interactions of autistic children: A behavioral mapping approach to assessing classroom behaviors. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 4, 359-373.

Green, C.W., Reid, O.H., White, L.K., Halford, R.C., Britain, D.P., & Gardener, SM. (1988). Identifying reinforces for persons with profound handicaps: Staff opinion versus systematic assessment of preferences. JABA, 21, 31-43.

Groden, G. (1989). A guide for conducting a comprehensive behavioral analysis of a target behavior, Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 20, 163 - 169.

Kanfer, F.H. & Saslow, G. (1969). Behavioral diagnostics. In C.M. Franks (Ed.), Behavior Therapy: Appraisal and Status, pp. 417-444. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pp. 417-418, 426 to 432, and 443-444.

lwata, B.A., Pace, G.M., Kissel, R.C., Neu, P.A., & Farber, J.M. (1990). The Self-Injury Trauma (SIT) Scale: A method for quantifying tissue damage caused by self-injurious behavior. JABA, 23, 99-110.

Mason, SEA., McGee, G.G., Farmer-Dougan, V., & Risley, T.R. (1989). A practical strategy for ongoing reinforcement assessment. JABA, 22, 171-179.

McMahon, R.J. (1984). Behavioral checklists and rating scales. In T.H. Ollendick & M. Hersen (Eds.), Child behavioral assessment: Principles and procedures. New York: Pergamon Press.

O’Neill, R.E., Horner, R.H., Albin, R.W., Storey, K., & Sprague, J.R. (1990). Functional analysis of problem behavior: A practical assessment guide. Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Publishing Company.

Pace, G.M., lvancic, M.T., Edwards, G.L., lwata, B.A., & Page, T.J. (1985). Assessment of stimulus preference and reinforcer value with profoundly retarded individuals. JABA, 18, 249-255.

Piles, D.A.M. & Bailey, J.S.(1990). Diagnosing severe behavior problems. In Repp & Singh (Eds.). Pp. 301-330.

Repp, A.C., Harman, N.L., Felce, D., Van Acker, R., & Karsh, K.G. (1989). Conducting behavioral assessments on computer collected data. Behavioral Assessment, 11, 249-268.

Schrader, C. & Gaylord-Ross, R. (1990). The eclipse of aversive technology: A triadic approach to assessment and treatment. In Repp & Singh (Eds). Pp. 403-417.

Touchette, P.E., MacDonald, R.F., & Langer, S.N. (1985). A scatter plot for identifying stimulus control of problem behavior. JABA, 18, 343-351. Reprinted in lwata, Bailey, et al., (1989). Pp. 184-192.

Content Area 6

Systematic Manipulations

Cooper, Heron, & Heward, (1987). Chapter 8: Introduction to analysis. Pp. 142-154 and pp. 154-160.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward, (1987). Chapter 9: Reversal and alternating treatment designs.

Konarski, E.A., Favell, J.E., & Favell, J.E. (1992). Functional and ecological analysis. In E.A. Konarski, J.E. Favell, & J.E. Favell (Eds.), Manual for the assessment and treatment of behavior disorders of people with mental retardation. Morganton, NC: Western Carolina Center Foundation.

lwata, B., Dorsey, M., Slifer, K., Bauman, K.E., & Richman, G.S. (1982). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Analysis & Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 1-20.

lwata, B.A., Vollmer, T.R., & Zarcone, J.R. (1990). The experimental (functional) analysis of behavior disorders: Methodology, applications, and limitations. In Repp & Singh (Eds.). Pp. 301-330.

Mace, F.C., Browder, D.M., & Lin, Y. (1987). Analysis of demand conditions associated with stereotypy. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 18, 25-31.

Wacker, D., Steege, M., Northup, J., Reimers, T., Berg, W., &, Sasso, G. (1990). Use of functional analysis and acceptability measures to assess and treat severe behavior problems: An outpatient clinic mode. In Repp & Singh (Eds.). Pp. 349-359.

Content Area 7

Measurement of Behavior

Bijou, S.W., Peterson, R.F., & Ault, M.H. (1968). A method to integrate descriptive and experimental field studies at the level of data and empirical concepts. JABA, 1, 175-191.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 4: Measuring and recording behavior.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 5: Planning and directing observational procedures.

Harrop, A. & Daniels, M. (1986). Methods of time sampling: A reappraisal of momentary time sampling and partial interval recording. JABA, 19, 73-77.

Jackson, D.A., Della-Piana, G.M., & Sloane, H.N. (1975). How to establish a behavior observation system. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Unit 4: Compute reliability of observational data, Pp. 22-32.

Jackson, et at. (1975). Unit 5: Make observations with four recording methods, Pp. 33-44.

Jackson, et at. (1975). Unit 7: Choose the proper recording methods, Pp. 61-66.

Repp, A.C., Deitz, D.E., Boles, S.M., Deitz, S.M., & Repp, C.F. (1976). Differences among common methods for calculating interobserver agreement. JABA, 9, 109-113.

Repp, A.C., Roberts, D.M., Stack, D.J., Repp, C.F., & Berkler, M.S. (1976). A comparison of frequency, interval, and time-sampling methods of data collection. JABA, 9, 501-508.

Sanson-Fisher, R.W., Poole, A.D., & Dunn, J. (1980). An empirical method for determining an appropriate interval length for recording behavior. JABA, 13, 493-500.

Content Area 8

Data Display

Cooper, Heron, & Heward, (1987). Chapter 8: Introduction to analysis. Pp. 142-151 and pp. 151-154.

Jackson, et at (1975). Unit 2: Convert information from table to graph form, Pp. 6-14.

Miller, L.K. (1980). Principles of everyday behavior analysis, Second Edition. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cote Publishing Company. Unit 1, Lesson 6: Graphing everyday behaviors.

Content Area 9
Data Interpretation

See references on assessment and behavior change procedures.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 6: Production and interpretation of graphic data displays.

Jackson, et at (1975). Unit 1: Interpretation of graphs, Pp. 1-5.

Establishing, Strengthening and Weakening Behavior

Content Area 10

Selection of Targets for Change and Intermediate and Ultimate Outcomes

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 3: Selecting and defining target behavior. Pp. 36-42.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 3: Selecting and defining target behavior (cont.) Pp. 42-58.

Gronlund, N.E. (1970). Stating behavioral objectives for classroom instruction. New York: Macmillan. Chapters 1, 2, and 3, Pp. 1-17.

Hawkins, R.P. & Dobes, R.W. (1977). Behavioral definitions in applied behavior analysis: Explicit or implicit? In B.C. Etzel, J.M. LeBlanc, & D.M. Baer (Eds.), New developments in behavioral research: Theory, method, and application, Pp. 167-188. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hawkins, R.P. (1975). Who decided that was the problem? Two stages of responsibility for applied behavior analysts. In W.S. Wood (Ed.), Issues in evaluating behavior modification, Pp. 195-214. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Jackson, et al (1975). Unit 9: Make an operational definition of a behavior, Pp. 73-79.

Mager, R.F. (1975). Preparing instructional objectives - Second Edition. Belmont, CA: Pitman. Chapter 3: The qualities of useful objectives. Pp. 19-22.

Miller, L.K. (1980). Principles of everyday behavior analysis, Second Edition. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cote Publishing Company. Unit 1, Lesson 2: Definitions of everyday behavior, Pp. 6-13.

Sulzer-Azaroff & Reese (1982), Chapter 2: Ethics and accountability, Part II, Pp. 25-40.

Sulzer-Azaroff & Reese (1982), Chapter 3: Behavioral objectives and task analysis, Pp. 41-58.

Content Area 11

General Issues Regarding the Selection of Behavior Change Procedures

This topic is covered in references on assessment and behavior change procedures.

Content Area 12

Behavior Change Procedures

Meyer & Evans (1989). Chapter 6: Ecological and consequence procedures. Read only Pp. 85-97.

Meyer & Evans (1989). Chapter 7: Teaching adaptive alternatives for home and community, Pp. 105-128.

Horner, R.D. (1980). The effects of an environmental "enrichment" program on the behavior of institutionalized profoundly retarded children. JABA, 13, 473-491. Reprinted in Bailey, Shook, Iwata, Reid, & Repp (1991). Pp. 638-656.

Carr, E.G. & Durand, V.M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training. JABA, 18, 297-314. Reprinted in Bailey, et at. (1986). Pp. 429-444.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 11: Operant reinforcement.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 12: Schedules of reinforcement.

Egel, A.L. (1981). Reinforcer variation: Implications for motivating developmentally disabled children. JABA, 14, 345-350.

Pace, G.M., Ivancic, M.T., Edwards, G.L., lwata, B.A., & Page, T.J. (1985). Assessment of stimulus preference and reinforcer value with profoundly retarded individuals. JABA, 18, 249-255.

Green, C.W., Reid, D.H., White, L.K., Halford, R.C., Britain, D.P., & Gardener, S.M. (1988). Identifying reinforces for persons with profound handicaps: Staff opinion versus systematic assessment of preferences. JABA, 21, 31-43.

Mason, SEA., McGee, G.G., Farmer-Dougan, V., & Risley, T.R. (1989). A practical strategy for ongoing reinforcement assessment. JABA, 22, 171-179.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 13: Stimulus control.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 14: Behavioral shaping.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 15: Behavior chains.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 16: imitation.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 25: Token economy.

Foxx, R.M. (1982). Increasing behaviors of severely retarded and autistic persons. Champaign, IL.: Research Press. Chapter 9: The task-analysis model of stimulus-response chains, Pp. 103-127.

Foxx, R.M. (1982). Increasing behaviors of severely retarded and autistic r>ersons. Champaign, IL.: Research Press. Chapter 10: Graduated guidance, Pp. 129-137.

Kazdin, A.E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings, Fourth Edition. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Pp. 194-198 and footnote on page 211.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 23: Contingency contracting.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 25: Group-oriented contingencies.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 26: Self-management.

O’Neill, et at. (1990). Pp. 56-60, and Appendix H.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 17: Extinction.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 18: Decreasing behavior with differential reinforcement.

Carr, E.G., Robinson, S., & Palumbo, L.W. (1990). The wrong issue: Aversive versus nonaversive treatment- The right issue: Functional vs. nonfunctional treatment. In Repp & Singh, ., Pp. 361-379.

Meyer, L.H. & Evans, I.M. (1989). Nonaversive interventions for behavior problems (1989). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Chapter 5: Design of intervention plans, Pp. 63-84.

lwata, B.A., Vollmer, T.R., & Zarcone, J.R. (1990). The experimental (functional) analysis of behavior disorders: Methodology, applications, and limitations. Pp. 316-330.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 19: Punishment by contingent presentation of a stimulus.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 20: Overcorrection.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 21: Time out from positive reinforcement.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 22: Response cost.

Newson, C., Favell, J.E., & Rincover, A. (1983). Side effects of punishment. In S. Axelrod & J. Apsche (Eds.), The effects of punishment on human behavior. N.Y.: McGraw-Hill. Pp. 285-316.

O'Brien, S. & Repp, A.C. (1990). Reinforcement-based reductive procedures: A review of 20 years of their use with persons with severe or profound retardation. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15, 148-159.

Vollmer, T.R. & lwata, B.A. (1992). Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: Procedural and functional variations. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 13, 393-417.

Cowdery, G.E., lwata, B.A., & Pace, G.M. (1990). Effects and side effects of DRO as treatment or self-injurious behavior. JABA, 23, 497-506.

Vollmer, T.R., lwata, B.A., Zarcone, J.R., Smith, R.G., & Mazateski, J.L. (1993). The role of non-contingent attention in the treatment of SIB maintained by socially mediated positive reinforcement. JABA

Dunlap, G., Foster-Johnson, L, & Robbins, F. Reducing serious behavior problems through skill development and early intervention. In A. Repp & Singh (Eds.). Pp. 273-286.

Mace, F.C. & Belfiore (1990). Behavioral momentum in the treatment of escape-motivated stereotypy. JABA, 23, 507-514.

Pace, G.M., lwata, B.A., Cowdery, G.E., Andree, P.J., & McIntyre, T. (1993). Stimulus (demand-frequency) fading during extinction of self-injurious escape behavior. JABA.

lwata, B.A. (1987). Negative reinforcement in applied behavior analysis: An emerging technology. JABA, 20, 361-378.

Steege, M.W., Wacker, D.P., Berg, W.K., Novak, C.G., Reimers, T.M., Sasso, G.M. & DeRaad, A. (1990). Use of negative reinforcement in the treatment of self-injurious behavior. JABA, 23, 459-467.

Favell, J.E., McGimsey, J.F., & Schell, R.M. (1982). Treatment of self-injury by providing alternate sensory activities. Analysis and intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 83-104

Dorsey, M.F., lwata, B.A., Reid, D Davis, P. (1982). Protective equipment: Continuous and contingent application in the treatment of self-injurious behavior. JABA, 17, 217-230.

Favell, J.E., McGimsey, J.F., & Jones, M. (1978). The use of physical restraint in the treatment of self-injury and as positive reinforcement. JABA, 11, 225-241. Reprinted in Bailey, Shook, lwata, Reid, & Repp (1986). Pp. 505-521.

Van Houten, R. & DoLeys, D.M. (1983).. Are social reprimands effective? In Axelrod & Apsche (Eds.). Pp. 45-70.

Bailey, S.L. (1983). Extraneous aversives. In Axelrod & Apsche (Eds) Pp. 247-284.

Solnick, J.V., Rincover, A., & Peterson, C.R. (1977). Some determinants of the reinforcing and punishing effects of timeout. JABA, 10, 415-424.

Brantner, J.P. & Doherty, M.A. (1983). A review of timeout: A conceptual and methodological analysis. In Axelrod & Apsche (Eds.). Pp. 87-132.

Pazutinec, R., Meyerrose, M., & Sajwaj, T. (1983). Punishment via response cost. In Axelrod & Apsche (Eds.). Pp. 71-86.

Gardener, W.I. & Cole, C.L. (1989). In Cipani (Ed), The treatment of severe behavior disorders: Behavior analysis approaches. Washington, D.C.: AAMR, Pp. 19-35.

Content Area 13

Maintenance and Generalization

Carr, E.G. (1988). Functional equivalence as a mechanism for response generalization. In Horner, Dunlap, & Koegel. Pp. 221-241.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (1987). Chapter 27: Promoting the generality of behavior change.

Favell, J.E. & Reid, D.H. (1988). Generalizing and maintaining improvement in problem behavior. In Horner, Dunlap, & Koegel. Pp. 171-196.

Horner, R.H. & Billingsley, F.F. (1988). The effect of competing behavior on the generalization of adaptive behavior in applied settings. In Horner, et at. (Eds.). Pp. 197-220.

Horner, R.H. & Day, H.M. (1991). The effects of response efficiency on functionally equivalent competing behavior. JABA, 24, 719-732.

Koegel, R.L. & Koegel, L.K. (1988). Generalized responsively and pivotal behaviors. In Horner, et at. (Eds.). Pp. 41-66.

Johnston, J.M. (1979). On the relation between generalization and generality. Behavior Analyst, Fall, 1 - 6.

Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. JABA, 10, 349-367.

Stokes, T.F. & Osnes, P.G. (1988). The developing applied technology of generalization and maintenance. In R.H. Horner, G. Dunlap, & R.L. Koegel (Eds.), Generalization and maintenance: Life-style changes in applied settings. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes P.C. Pp. 5-19.

Wong, S. E., Martinez-Diaz, J.A., Masset, H. K., Edelstein, B., Wiegand, H. W., Bowen, L., & Liberman, R. P. (1993). Conversational skills training with schizophrenic in-patients: A study of generalization across settings and conversants. Behavior Therapy, 24, 285-304.

Content Area 14

Managing Emergencies

See "General Texts."

Cultural/Social Issues

Content Area 15

Transfer of Technology

Christian, W.P. (1983). A case study in the programming and maintenance of institutional change. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 5, 99-153.

Egel, A.L. & Powers, M.D. (1989). Behavioral parent training: A view to the past and suggestions for the future. In E. Cipani (Ed.), The treatment of severe behavior disorders: Behavior analysis approaches. Washington, D.C.: American Association on Mental Retardation, Pp. 153-173.

Lutzker, J.R. & Campbell, R.V. (1994). Ecobehavioral family interventions in developmental disabilities. Chapter 4: Parent training.

lvancic, M.T., Reid, D.H., Iwata, B.A., Few, G.D., & Page, T.J. (1981). Evaluating a supervision program for developing and maintaining therapeutic staff-resident interactions during institutional care routines. JABA, 14, 95-107.

Neef, N.A., Parrish, J.M., Egel, A.L., & Sloan, M.E. (1986). Training respite care providers for families with handicapped children: Experimental analysis and validation of an instructional packet. JABA, 19, 105-124.

Page, T.J., Iwata, B.A., Reid, D.H. (1982). Pyramidal training: A large scale application with institutional staff. JABA, 15, 335-351.

Reid, D.H., Parsons, M.B., & Green, C.W. (1989). Staff management in human services: Behavioral research and application. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Chapter 3: Staff training, Pp. 45-67.

Reid, D.H., Parsons, M.B., & Green, C.W. (1989). Treating aberrant behavior through effective staff management: A developing technology. In E. Cipani. Pp. 175-190.

Richman, G.S., Riordan, M.R., Reiss, M.L., Pyles, D.A.M., & Bailey, J.S. (1988). The effects of self-monitoring and supervisor feedback on staff performance in a residential setting. JABA, 21, 401-409.

Schreibman, L. (1988). Parent training as a means of facilitating generalization in autistic children. In Horner, Dunlap, & Koegel. Pp. 21-40.

Content Area 16

Establishing Support for Behavior Analysis Services

See "General Texts" particularly Skinner.