Steps for Creating Programmed Instruction Tutorials

To specify the initial behavior, the author states exactly what the learner should be able to do before starting the program, including any necessary concepts the student must already understand to learn the new material, as well as the required reading level.

To specify the terminal behavior, the author states exactly what the learner should be able to do after completing the program (essentially, the objectives of the tutorial, which can be presented to the student at the beginning of the tutorial).  The author can also state conditions under which these behaviors should occur. "Conditions" describe precisely what stimuli or cues are present at the time the behavior is to occur.

Here, the author can do this by memory and independently "brainstorming."  No references are used as they might limit a free-ranging exploration of all related concepts. State any key or related concepts or ideas that the rules generate. If possible, state these in a outline or word processor for easy rearrangement.

Here, the author studies the dictionary, thesaurus, encyclopedia, reference books, literature, notes, videos, web information, talks with others, or other resources to help clarify, better define, or add rules. When resources give only examples, the author may need to induce the applicable rules.

Here, the author sorts and rearranges the rules into developmental order considering their importance, complexity (simpler rules first), chronology (ordering of rules in time), and/or dependence on prerequisite rules (need to know earlier rules to understand later rules).  Meaning, the author orders the rules according to which rule should be taught first, then second, and so on.

Here, the author can create a matrix (grid or spreadsheet) listing the same rules on the left and top of the matrix.  The author can then identify intraverbal connections (relationships) between the rules.  When the rules are related in some important way, an R is placed in the adjoining cell. When the rules differ in some important way, a D is placed in the adjoining cell. Notes can be taken below to grid about these relationships.  These notes and the matrix cue the author to include discrimination frames for rules that are similar or different in important ways.  The matrix can also help the author to look for exceptions, special cases, and possible areas of confusion.

For each rule, the author lists as many examples as possible.  Examples should be specific and diverse, simple and complex, and should exemplify how the rules relate and differ.  Many examples are needed for each rule to first TEACH, and later for PRACTICE and REVIEW. The learner will need to apply, induce, discriminate, and generalize among and between examples for every rule.  This list of examples will come in handy as the author later constructs actual frames.  Within the frames, the author can use simple examples first, and then gradually incorporate more complex and diverse examples to promote generalization of each rule.  Examples can be common everyday examples, non-examples, special or limiting cases, trivial, etc. Examples should be age-appropriate, relevant, interesting, and designed for the target audience.  Listing as many examples as possible is very important, for it is through examples that rules are learned.

The author takes another look at the preliminary ordering of the rules, and lists the examples under each rule in their developmental order.  Again, if the rules and examples are typed in a word or outline processor, the rules and examples can be easily rearranged, copied, and pasted.

Using the ordered list of the rules and examples, the author carefully selects, combines, and groups the rules and examples into frames.  The same rule is presented and repeated in subsequent priming frames as new examples are presented.  The author constantly "thinks ahead," looking at the next rule to be taught on the list, and includes priming information in early frames that prepares students to answer correctly in later frames. Thematic and formal prompts are used sparingly, primarily for low probability responses. Copy frames are rarely used. Prompts are faded as the program progresses. Practice frames are included. Test frames are next. Review frames are used to review prior instruction that is linked to upcoming instruction. Answer blanks are placed near the end of each frame and are used to teach the criterion behavior. Grammar and spelling is corrected. Gender bias is corrected.  For novice programmers, the Example RULEG Frame Type Pattern can be consulted (see far below).

Step 9. Assemble the Frames into a Tutorial Program

Insert the frames into some type of paper or computer-based program.

Step 10. Pilot Test the Tutorial

Administer the tutorial to a small sample of appropriate students.

Step 11. Revise the Tutorial Frames Based Upon Student Responses

Here, the saying "The student writes the program" is not to be ignored.  Inspect the record of sample student responses.  Errors point to frames that require revision.  Additional instructional priming frames may need to be created and inserted within the tutorial.

Step 12. Re-Administer the Tutorial and Revise If Necessary

Re-administer the tutorial to different small sample of appropriate students and revise again if necessary.